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Much attention has recently been paid to the potential harm caused by saturated and particularly so-called “trans fats” in the diet. Saturated fats are commonly those derived from animal sources, particularly meat and dairy produce, whereas trans fats are otherwise healthy polyunsaturated oils which have been artificially treated to make them solid at room temperature. These are regarded as especially pernicious because they are very commonly hidden in popular processed foods such as pies, cakes, biscuits, bread and pizza dough, to name but a few.

Amongst the worst effects of trans fats are a dramatic increase in blood levels of low-density lipids (LDL), the so-called “bad cholesterol”, which is known to be a major risk factor in the development of atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries) and other forms of cardiovascular disease. And as if this wasn’t bad enough, trans fats also increase the production of the free radicals which oxidise this bad cholesterol.

Some studies, however, suggest that it is not so much the intake of saturated and trans fats in itself which is the problem, but the ratio of saturated fat to polyunsaturated fatty acids consumed, and the replacement of saturated and trans fats with polyunsaturated fatty acids is therefore highly recommended for cardiac health.

In fact large scale studies following tens of thousands of subjects over decades have shown the risk of coronary heart disease to be reduced by as much as a quarter in those obtaining the highest proportion of their energy intake from polyunsaturated fatty acids when compared with those at the lower end of the scale.

The omega 6 fatty acid, linoleic acid, is the polyunsaturate most richly supplied by a normal diet and there is good evidence that those of the omega-6 group are the most effective at reducing blood levels of Low Density Lipids (LDL). Evidence also suggests that although omega 3 fatty acids may help reduce blood triglycerides, which is a significant benefit, they do not have a similar effect on levels of LDL cholesterol. Therefore, although there are undoubted benefits, and especially to cardiovascular health, in increasing intakes of omega 3, particularly through the consumption of oily fish, this should not be allowed to obscure the benefits of omega 6 fatty acids.

The European Commission recommends an omega-6 intake of 4-8% of total daily calorie intake. The World Health Organization, by contrast, currently advocates omega 6 fatty acids intake of 5-8% of total energy requirements; whilst the US Food and Nutrition Board has defined Adequate Intakes (AI) of omega 6 fatty acids as daily levels ranging from 4.4 – 4.6 g for infants under 1 year to as much as 17g and 12g for adult men and women respectively.

The good news is that a decent supply of omega 6 fatty acids should be readily obtainable, because the richest dietary sources of linoleic acid are common vegetable oils like sunflower and safflower, a single tablespoon of each of which may contain as much as 9-10g. Soy, corn and sesame oils are not quite as rich in omega-6, but may still be useful. The bad news is that the processing involved in the commercial production of these oils may strip them of much of their nutritional power.

Worse still, their use in cooking may be just as harmful as the use of saturated or trans fats. But the use of as natural an oil as possible, preferably in its cold state in salads, will help provide omega-6 in its healthiest possible form; and the use of evening primrose or borage oils as supplements is also often recommended by nutritionists. Nuts such as brazils and pecans may also provide a small but useful supply of omega 6 fatty acids.

But which ever source is preferred, omega 6 fatty acids are like all other nutrients in that they function best in the presence of a good supply of all essential vitamins and minerals. There is particular evidence, however, to suggest that polyunsaturated fatty acids, including omega-6, may be more susceptible to oxidative, ie free radical, damage than saturated fats. In order to ensure the maximum possible benefit from omega 6 fatty acids (and for that matter, omega 3) some nutritionists therefore suggest that any increase in intake of polyunsaturates should be accompanied by a corresponding intake in vitamin E, the body’s most important fat-soluble anti-oxidant; an increase which will also deliver numerous health benefits in its own right.

Steve Smith

Omega 6 Fatty Acids, Liquid Vitamins and Minerals

Much attention has recently been paid to the potential harm caused by saturated and particularly so-called “trans fats” in the diet. Saturated fats are commonly those derived from animal sources, particularly meat and dairy produce, whereas trans fats are otherwise healthy polyunsaturated oils which have been artificially treated to make them solid at room temperature. These are regarded as especially pernicious because they are very commonly hidden in popular processed foods such as pies, cakes, biscuits, bread and pizza dough, to name but a few.

Amongst the worst effects of trans fats are a dramatic increase in blood levels of low-density lipids (LDL), the so-called “bad cholesterol”, which is known to be a major risk factor in the development of atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries) and other forms of cardiovascular disease. And as if this wasn’t bad enough, trans fats also increase the production of the free radicals which oxidise this bad cholesterol.

Some studies, however, suggest that it is not so much the intake of saturated and trans fats in itself which is the problem, but the ratio of saturated fat to polyunsaturated fatty acids consumed, and the replacement of saturated and trans fats with polyunsaturated fatty acids is therefore highly recommended for cardiac health.

In fact large scale studies following tens of thousands of subjects over decades have shown the risk of coronary heart disease to be reduced by as much as a quarter in those obtaining the highest proportion of their energy intake from polyunsaturated fatty acids when compared with those at the lower end of the scale.

The omega 6 fatty acid, linoleic acid, is the polyunsaturate most richly supplied by a normal diet and there is good evidence that those of the omega-6 group are the most effective at reducing blood levels of Low Density Lipids (LDL). Evidence also suggests that although omega 3 fatty acids may help reduce blood triglycerides, which is a significant benefit, they do not have a similar effect on levels of LDL cholesterol. Therefore, although there are undoubted benefits, and especially to cardiovascular health, in increasing intakes of omega 3, particularly through the consumption of oily fish, this should not be allowed to obscure the benefits of omega 6 fatty acids.

The European Commission recommends an omega-6 intake of 4-8% of total daily calorie intake. The World Health Organization, by contrast, currently advocates omega 6 fatty acids intake of 5-8% of total energy requirements; whilst the US Food and Nutrition Board has defined Adequate Intakes (AI) of omega 6 fatty acids as daily levels ranging from 4.4 – 4.6 g for infants under 1 year to as much as 17g and 12g for adult men and women respectively.

The good news is that a decent supply of omega 6 fatty acids should be readily obtainable, because the richest dietary sources of linoleic acid are common vegetable oils like sunflower and safflower, a single tablespoon of each of which may contain as much as 9-10g. Soy, corn and sesame oils are not quite as rich in omega-6, but may still be useful. The bad news is that the processing involved in the commercial production of these oils may strip them of much of their nutritional power.

Worse still, their use in cooking may be just as harmful as the use of saturated or trans fats. But the use of as natural an oil as possible, preferably in its cold state in salads, will help provide omega-6 in its healthiest possible form; and the use of evening primrose or borage oils as supplements is also often recommended by nutritionists. Nuts such as brazils and pecans may also provide a small but useful supply of omega 6 fatty acids.

But which ever source is preferred, omega 6 fatty acids are like all other nutrients in that they function best in the presence of a good supply of all essential vitamins and minerals. There is particular evidence, however, to suggest that polyunsaturated fatty acids, including omega-6, may be more susceptible to oxidative, ie free radical, damage than saturated fats. In order to ensure the maximum possible benefit from omega 6 fatty acids (and for that matter, omega 3) some nutritionists therefore suggest that any increase in intake of polyunsaturates should be accompanied by a corresponding intake in vitamin E, the body’s most important fat-soluble anti-oxidant; an increase which will also deliver numerous health benefits in its own right.

Steve Smith

Omega 6 fatty acids

Much of the misunderstanding surrounding polyunsaturated fatty acids may perhaps be ascribed to the general horror evoked in our society by the very words “fat” and “fatty”. And it’s quite true that saturated fats and so-called “trans-fats” need to be kept to a minimum within a healthy diet. Essential fatty acids, however, are a different matter.

The word “essential”, in this context, means simply that they can be manufactured by the body in only very small quantities, if at all, and a supply must consequently be obtained through the diet. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are also essential, however, in the broader sense that they are a vital part of a properly balanced diet, and play a crucial role in the health and appearance of the whole human organism.

The most important of these essential fatty acids are linoleic acid (omega 6) and alpha-linolenic acid, one of the omega 3 essential fatty acids. Both groups are vital for human health, and the body requires a properly balanced intake of the two. But it’s probably fair to say that it’s the benefits of omega 3 essential fatty acids which are currently attracting the most attention, perhaps because the typical Western diet commonly contains far more omega 6 than omega 3, an imbalance which may have potentially serious health consequences.

The benefits of omega 3 essential fatty acids may include relief for sufferers from numerous conditions, including diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, schizophrenia, bipolar illness and more general depression. But by far the greatest attention has been paid to omega 3’s role as a powerful protector against heart attack, cardiovascular disease and stroke, still amongst the biggest premature killers in the Western world.

Particular attention has been paid to the cardio-protective effects of the omega 3 essential fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, better known as EPA and DHA respectively. Both EPA and DHA have been shown in a number of studies to reduce levels of blood triglycerides, microscopic particles of fat strongly associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and heart attack. The consumption of oily fish, by far the richest source of EPA and DHA, is therefore now recommended both by nutritionists and orthodox medicine, including the American Heart Association.

In fact regular (ie at least twice weekly 100 g servings) consumption of oily fish and sea food, with correspondingly increased intake of omega 3 essential fatty acids, has been shown in a number of studies to reduce mortality in sufferers from coronary heart disease by as much as one-third.

And large scale studies following thousands of subjects for a decade and more have reported reductions of up to 40-50% in the incidence of coronary heart disease in subjects consuming the highest amounts of omega 3 essential fatty acids; the best protective effect being found in those who did not already consume significant amounts of oily fish and seafood.

There’s also good evidence from studies following tens of thousands of subjects for ten or more years that the risk of sudden death by heart attack, through failure of the heart muscle or arrhythmia, may be reduced by anything up to 50% simply by the weekly consumption of oily fish, a finding supported by evidence that higher blood levels of EPA and DHA also appeared to reduce this risk.

The US Food and Nutrition Board has recommended that infants under 1 year should obtain 0.5 g daily of alpha-linolenic acid, rising gradually to 1.6 g for adult men and 1.1 g for women. The European Commission, by contrast, recommends for adults 2 g per day of omega 3 essential fatty acids, which should include 0.2 g of EPA/DHA.

But since oily fish, such as herring, mackerel, salmon and sardines, tends to form rather a small element of the Western diet, typical daily intakes of EPA and DHA may be as low as 0.04 g. For most individuals, to obtain the benefits of omega 3 essential fatty acids from diet alone would therefore require a very radical change of diet, and supplementation is probably the more attractive option.

Fortunately, odorless and tasteless fish oil supplements are now readily available, and it is also possible to obtain eggs enriched with omega 3 essential fatty acids. It should be noted, however, that polyunsaturated fatty acids may be more prone to oxidative free radical damage than saturated fats, potentially eliminating much of their effectiveness. When supplementing with omega 3 essential fatty acids, it is therefore sensible also to increase intake of vitamin E, the most important fat-soluble anti-oxidant, a move which will also provide numerous cardiac health benefits in its own right.

Steve Smith

More about good nutrition, liquid vitamins and minerals

Although dietary zinc has been known since the 1960s to play an important role in human health, it was not until as recently as 1990 that its role as an important ant-oxidant was identified. Perhaps not surprisingly, early attention focussed on zinc’s role as an essential mineral for sexual and reproductive health, particularly in the male; but it is now known that its functions are much more numerous. Indeed some nutritional practitioners go so far as to claim that plentiful supplies of dietary zinc are vital for the proper functioning of every cell in the body.

Initial laboratory experiments appeared to show two ways in which zinc discharged its anti-oxidant functions. The first is that dozens of vital enzymes within the body contain zinc and in these enzymes the zinc molecule acts directly as an anti-oxidant, protecting the biochemical structure of the enzyme from free radical attack. Secondly, zinc acts to stabilise proteins which may otherwise react with highly unstable minerals, particularly iron and copper, to form free radicals.

These experimental demonstrations of zinc’s anti-oxidant activity have now been amply confirmed by studies of the effects of zinc deficiencies and supplementation in live humans; and some researchers have given particular attention to zinc’s activity within the brain.

Zinc is found in higher concentrations within the brain than any other essential mineral except iron and is believed to be particularly important in preserving the effectiveness of the so-called “blood brain barrier” (BBB). The purpose of the BB is to protect vital brain and nervous system tissue from the toxins which it might otherwise absorb through the blood supply. The potential problem is that the BBB is made of a highly sensitive and fragile membrane, largely comprised of fatty acids, which is particularly vulnerable to the oxidative damage caused by free radicals.

The supposition is therefore that oxidative stress upon the body may lead to reduced effectiveness of the BBB, with a consequently increased likelihood of degenerative health problems within the brain and nervous system; the best known of these being Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. This supposition has been borne out by laboratory experiments on rats, which have also shown that zinc deficiency in these animals significantly reduces the strength of the BBB.

It is perhaps not surprising, therefore, that zinc deficiency in humans has long been associated with brain pathologies including schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, dyslexia, Huntington’s disease, various dementias anorexia and depression. The logical corollary of these well-established findings should be that adequate supplies of dietary zinc will protect against these pathologies, perhaps especially those degenerative ones most closely associated with long-term oxidative stress.

Unfortunately, however, it appears that zinc is one of those minerals which it is becoming increasingly difficult to obtain from the daily diet. Soil depletion, environmental pollutants and diets high in refined carbohydrate diets are all implicated in dramatically reducing the amount of zinc active within our bodies; and the problem is especially acute for the elderly, whose less efficient digestive systems often struggle to absorb adequate amounts of the mineral, even supposing that these are present in the diet in the first place.

And these problems are compounded by the fact that the functions of zinc are by no means confined to brain and nervous system health. Adequate zinc is also necessary for the effectiveness of the immune system and wound healing, for reproductive and sexual health, the prevention of degenerative eye disease, the regulation of blood sugar and the maintenance of skin health to name but a few.

Not surprisingly, therefore, nutritional therapists make a strong case for routine zinc supplementation, particularly for the older population, and commonly recommend a daily protective dose of 15–25 mg of zinc per day. Both the US and EU authorities suggest a Recommended Dietary Amount (RDA) of 15 mg, and a good quality multi-mineral product will commonly provide around half this quantity. Higher doses of the single mineral are of course available when required for tackling the conditions detailed above, but more than 200 mg of zinc daily should not be taken for extended periods because this may interfere with the absorption of other minerals.

In this context it should be remembered in any case that the body functions holistically and that all supplements of zinc, of whatever quantity, should be taken together with comprehensive multi-mineral and multi-vitamin preparations.

Steve Smith

More about anti-oxidants, liquid vitamins and minerals

Although dietary zinc has been known since the 1960s to play an important role in human health, it was not until as recently as 1990 that its role as an important ant-oxidant was identified. Perhaps not surprisingly, early attention focussed on zinc’s role as an essential mineral for sexual and reproductive health, particularly in the male; but it is now known that its functions are much more numerous. Indeed some nutritional practitioners go so far as to claim that plentiful supplies of dietary zinc are vital for the proper functioning of every cell in the body.

Initial laboratory experiments appeared to show two ways in which zinc discharged its anti-oxidant functions. The first is that dozens of vital enzymes within the body contain zinc and in these enzymes the zinc molecule acts directly as an anti-oxidant, protecting the biochemical structure of the enzyme from free radical attack. Secondly, zinc acts to stabilise proteins which may otherwise react with highly unstable minerals, particularly iron and copper, to form free radicals.

These experimental demonstrations of zinc’s anti-oxidant activity have now been amply confirmed by studies of the effects of zinc deficiencies and supplementation in live humans; and some researchers have given particular attention to zinc’s activity within the brain.

Zinc is found in higher concentrations within the brain than any other essential mineral except iron and is believed to be particularly important in preserving the effectiveness of the so-called “blood brain barrier” (BBB). The purpose of the BB is to protect vital brain and nervous system tissue from the toxins which it might otherwise absorb through the blood supply. The potential problem is that the BBB is made of a highly sensitive and fragile membrane, largely comprised of fatty acids, which is particularly vulnerable to the oxidative damage caused by free radicals.

The supposition is therefore that oxidative stress upon the body may lead to reduced effectiveness of the BBB, with a consequently increased likelihood of degenerative health problems within the brain and nervous system; the best known of these being Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. This supposition has been borne out by laboratory experiments on rats, which have also shown that zinc deficiency in these animals significantly reduces the strength of the BBB.

It is perhaps not surprising, therefore, that zinc deficiency in humans has long been associated with brain pathologies including schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, dyslexia, Huntington’s disease, various dementias anorexia and depression. The logical corollary of these well-established findings should be that adequate supplies of dietary zinc will protect against these pathologies, perhaps especially those degenerative ones most closely associated with long-term oxidative stress.

Unfortunately, however, it appears that zinc is one of those minerals which it is becoming increasingly difficult to obtain from the daily diet. Soil depletion, environmental pollutants and diets high in refined carbohydrate diets are all implicated in dramatically reducing the amount of zinc active within our bodies; and the problem is especially acute for the elderly, whose less efficient digestive systems often struggle to absorb adequate amounts of the mineral, even supposing that these are present in the diet in the first place.

And these problems are compounded by the fact that the functions of zinc are by no means confined to brain and nervous system health. Adequate zinc is also necessary for the effectiveness of the immune system and wound healing, for reproductive and sexual health, the prevention of degenerative eye disease, the regulation of blood sugar and the maintenance of skin health to name but a few.

Not surprisingly, therefore, nutritional therapists make a strong case for routine zinc supplementation, particularly for the older population, and commonly recommend a daily protective dose of 15–25 mg of zinc per day. Both the US and EU authorities suggest a Recommended Dietary Amount (RDA) of 15 mg, and a good quality multi-mineral product will commonly provide around half this quantity. Higher doses of the single mineral are of course available when required for tackling the conditions detailed above, but more than 200 mg of zinc daily should not be taken for extended periods because this may interfere with the absorption of other minerals.

In this context it should be remembered in any case that the body functions holistically and that all supplements of zinc, of whatever quantity, should be taken together with comprehensive multi-mineral and multi-vitamin preparations.

Steve Smith

More about anti-oxidants, liquid vitamins and minerals

Zinc is one of the many trace minerals required by the body, but the fact that it’s required in relatively small amounts should not be allowed to obscure its significance. It’s required by the body for the production of more than 200 essential enzymes, one of the most crucial of these being superoxide dismutase, a vital anti-oxidant.

The particular importance of superoxide dismutase lies in its role in mopping up the superoxide free radicals which are released upon the metabolism of oxygen within cells, literally with every breath we take. Superoxide free radicals react with other by-products of energy production to form hydroxyl, the most damaging free radical of all, and to attack the mitochondria of the cells themselves.

Since it is the mitochondria which ultimately produce the energy for all the body’s vital reactions, mitochondrial damage due to free radicals can only mean the production of less and less energy and the gradual deterioration and degeneration of the entire organism.

As well as being vital for the body’s manufacture of anti-oxidants, zinc also helps the immune system to regulate the process by which defective or worn out cells are killed off by the body before they have chance to multiply themselves and perhaps ultimately become cancerous. These functions alone would make it one of the key micronutrients which are vital to the body’s long-term health.

But there’s much more to zinc than this, because it’s now known to be necessary for the production of the white blood cells which are one of the body’s first lines of defence against infection, and for the proper functioning of the thymus gland which is heavily involved in the regulation of the immune system. So zinc is crucial not just in staving off long-term degeneration, but in fighting off acute infections.

And this well documented value as an immune system booster has given zinc great popularity as a cold and flu remedy, although the effectiveness of the many lozenges sold for this purpose once illness is established remains open to question. But the importance of a healthy immune system in preventing infection in the first place is not in doubt. And it’s here that an adequate supply of zinc is essential.

Although the typical requirement for zinc is only 15 mg a day, it is surprisingly easy to fall below this. Indeed some estimates suggest that typical dietary intakes may be as low as 9 mg for women and 13 mg for men, and even this may be poorly absorbed so some nutritionists recommend aiming for an intake of around 25 mg to ensure an adequate supply.

It also needs to be remembered that certain groups of people with depressed immune systems, such as HIV sufferers, diabetics and alcoholics may have an increased requirement for zinc. But by far the largest such group is comprised of the over 65s. And it should be realised that the consequence of a zinc deficiency may be much more serious for these older individuals, given that their immune systems are likely in any case to be less effective than those of healthy young adults.

So the conclusion appears to be straightforward: ensuring that the diet is adequate in zinc is vital to the efficiency of the immune system, and therefore to long-term health and well being. But as always with the human body, the full story isn’t quite so simple. The body functions holistically, and an excess of any one nutrient may well lead to a deficiency in another. Taking in too much iron, for example, may in itself lead to a deficiency in zinc. But in the case of an excess of zinc (defined by the US Food and Nutrition Board as more than 40 mg a day), the associated deficiency is of copper.

Deficiency in copper is rarely severe enough to produce clinical symptoms, but this should not obscure the important functions of this trace mineral. As with zinc, adequate supplies of copper are vital for the production of anti-oxidant enzymes and energy within the body’s cells. Sub-clinical deficiencies have also been implicated in cases of mild anaemia and depression of the immune system.

The best way to counter these risks is, of course, to consume a diet rich in both zinc and copper. Red meat, particularly beef, and shellfish are known as good animal sources, whilst nuts and beans offer a useful source for vegetarians. Whole grains are a useful additional plant source of copper. Plant sources of zinc, however, are less well absorbed by the body than those derived from animal sources, and so this is a nutrient which may require particular attention for those following a vegetarian diet.

But given the poverty of modern Western diets in both vitamins and minerals, supplementation may in any case be necessary to ensure the health of the immune system, particularly, as discussed above, for the over 65s. Various forms of specific zinc supplement are readily available, but it is probably wiser to ensure that any supplementation of zinc is taken in a properly balanced multi-mineral formulation also containing an appropriate amount of copper.

Steve Smith

More about liquid vitamins and minerals

Most people are now familiar with the idea that vitamin C may help protect against and mitigate the symptoms of the common cold, although this theory is by no means universally accepted by orthodox medical opinion. But there’s now evidence that supplements of vitamin E may also play a role in reducing the incidence of infection; leading some commentators to propose that combined supplements of vitamins C and E may be highly effective both as prevention and treatment.

Various recent research studies have suggested that supplementation with 200 IU of vitamin E, or 1,000 mg of vitamin C may reduce the incidence of colds by between 20 and 25%, although double-blind/placebo experiments have not always been able to confirm these results. But even if one remains sceptical about the value of vitamins E and C as weapons for combatting the common cold specifically, there’s no doubt that both are highly important in ensuring the optimal health of the immune system in general, and can therefore only be of value in warding off the worst effects of this annoying, albeit usually minor illness.

And there’s particularly good evidence that vitamin E functions as a general immune system booster, preserving vital red blood cells and stimulating the body’s production of natural antibodies, effects which have been shown to be particularly pronounced and important in the over 60s, whose immune systems are commonly beginning to function less effectively than those of younger people.

Moreover, vitamins C and E are probably the body’s two most important anti-oxidants, liquid and fat-soluble respectively, and crucial in protecting against the free radical damage to cells and tissue which left unchecked can lead to premature signs of ageing, and even the degenerative diseases which cause much of the misery associated with advancing years. So for their anti-oxidant functions alone it would be more than worthwhile to ensure an abundant supply of both of these vitamins.

When considering supplementation with vitamin E it is important to look for the tocopherol form, usually d-alpha tocopherol, which most closely replicates the naturally occurring form of the vitamin in foods such as wheatgerm, dairy produce oily fish and certain nuts and seeds.

As is well known, by far the best food sources of vitamin C are fresh fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits and juices. But to obtain the kind of intakes generally recommended for optimal health and the prevention of colds and other infections, which most nutritional therapists set at least 1,000 mg (1gram) per day, it is probably necessary to supplement. Fortunately, ascorbate, the manufactured form of vitamin C, is highly effective, particularly when combined with the plant bioflavonoids with which vitamin C is commonly found in nature. Such supplements are readily available.

Vitamin C appears to be non-toxic in almost any quantity which could plausibly be ingested, the only reported side effect being diarrhea, and even this has been observed only in cases where tens of grams have been consumed on a daily basis. Somewhat more caution needs to be exercised in the case of vitamin E because of its fat solubility. But even here, however, supplementary doses of several thousand IU per day – far in excess of the normally recommended therapeutic dose of around 400 IU, appear to be very safe. The only likely contra-indication arises because of vitamin E’s action as an anti-coagulant, meaning that it should not be taken before surgey or when taking any presecibed blood thinning medication.

As always in matters of nutrition, however, it is crucial to adopt a holistic approach. And both vitamins E and C will require the presence of an abundant supply of all the vitamins and minerals required by the body if they are to do their work effectively. Even orthodox opinion, therefore, whilst ordinarily inclined to cast doubt upon the therapeutic claims of nutritional therapists, commonly recommends a comprehensive multi-vitamin and multi-mineral suppplement as a valuable element in a daily regime for optimal health.

Steve Smith

More about liquid vitamins and minerals

Since its discovery in 1922 Vitamin E has become generally regarded as one of the body’s most powerful, versatile and useful anti-oxidants. And as such its importance should not be underestimated, because anti-oxidants are the principal defence against the free radicals which are responsible for much of the degeneration and consequent disease which afflicts the human body as it ages.

Numerous studies have demonstrated the benefits of vitamin E in protecting against and restricting the progression of cardiovascular disease, including atherosclerosis. Vitamin E also appears to have anti-coagulant properties similar to the drugs prescribed for this purpose, and may therefore help to protect against the highly dangerous blood clots which can lead to stroke – still one of the main causes of premature death and disability in the western world.

Vitamin E is also needed in large quantities by the brain, the proper functioning of which is highly dependent on the efficient transmission of messages between cells through their fatty membranes. As a fat-soluble anti-oxidant, vitamin E is an important protector against the free radical damage to these cell membranes which may well be one of the principal causes of age-related vision loss, cognitive deterioration and perhaps even Alzheimer’s disease.

But it doesn’t stop there.

Cancer is well known as predominantly a disease of degeneration, so it’s not surprising that a powerful anti-oxidant and immune system booster such as vitamin E should have been shown to offer a degree of protection against it. Vitamin E may also protect healthy cells against the damaging side effects of aggressive chemo and radio therapies and has further demonstrated possible benefits for those suffering from diabetes, and rheumatoid and osteoarthritis.

So the combined effects of vitamin E allow little room for doubt that it’s one of the body’s most powerful general protectors. But sadly it’s none too easy to obtain an adequate supply of this crucial vitamin from diet alone. The richest sources of vitamin E are leafy green vegetables, certain types of nuts, vegetable oils and whole grains; foods which are sadly under represented in the modern, highly refined and processed, high fat Western diet.

Fortunately, however, supplements of vitamin E are readily available in quantities such as 400 IU per capsule, which generally recognised as both safe and effective. The problem is that supplementation with vitamin E alone is highly unlikely to be effective, because the action of the vitamin is dependent on a chain, each link of which must be present if it’s to function properly.

To begin with, vitamin E cannot do its work in the absence of an adequate supply of active vitamin C. In its turn, vitamin C cannot remain active without the presence of glutathione. And although is the most prevalent anti-oxidant enzyme in the body, glutathione cannot act effectively in the absence of the trace mineral, selenium, and vitamin B3 (niacin).

Glutathione, along with superoxide dismutase and catalase, is one of the key antioxidant enzymes, that work in a closely complementary fashion to form the body’s first line of defence against superoxide free radicals. The body particularly needs the fat-soluble glutathione to work with vitamin E to soak up and neutralise any rogue hydrogen peroxide molecules in those vital parts of the cells, such as the membranes, which are actually formed of fat. Further free radical attack would otherwise turn the hydrogen peroxide into hydroxyl, the most damaging free radical of all, which, once formed, cannot then be neutralised by any enzyme.

Selenium and B3 are therefore just as essential to a successful anti-oxidant rich diet as the better known vitamins E and C.

So whilst the amounts of any particular nutrient required by the body may be tiny, in the case of selenium as little as 50 micrograms, the effects of any deficiency may be nevertheless disastrous. So the point always to remember is that the body’s systems and the nutrients serving them work synergistically. There’s generally little point in lavish supplementation with one or even several particular nutrients if the rest of the diet is of poor quality and does not provide an adequate supply of all the others.

This point is particularly clear in the way that the vital anti-oxidant qualities of vitamin E are highly dependent upon a complex interaction with vitamins C and B3, and selenium, an adequate supply of all of which is therefore absolutely necessary if the maximum protective effects of vitamin E and the body’s anti-oxidant enzymes are to be enjoyed.

Steve Smith

More about anti-oxidants, liquid vitamins and minerals

It would be a great pity if recent media scare stories highlighting the supposed risks of vitamin E supplementation prevented people, particularly the elderly, from ensuring that their diets include adequate supplies of this vital nutrient.

These stories all centred on a single study, which was not new research but a meta-analysis of 19 previous reports focussed on subjects already identified as suffering from chronic diseases. The applicability of its findings to the usefulness or otherwise of vitamin E in helping to prevent disease and maintain optimum health in the well population must therefore be open to serious doubt. And this one study must also be considered alongside the many which have reported the different health benefits of vitamin E since its discovery in 1922.

Numerous of these studies have demonstrated the benefits of vitamin E to cardiovascular health in terms of protecting against the onset of heart disease, in restricting the advance of the disease, and in reducing the risk of second and further heart attacks in those already affected. In common with other anti-oxidants, vitamin E also appears to protects against atherosclerosis, the hardening of the arteries which is the common precursor of serious heart problems. In fact vitamin E appears to have a general blood thinning and anti-coagulant effect similar to but much gentler and more natural than drugs such as warfarin. Vitamin E thereby helps to protect against highly dangerous clots forming in the arteries serving the brain and heart; clots which can lead to stroke – still one of the main causes of premature death and disability in the western world.

But the benefits of vitamin E reach far beyond the heart and circulatory system. Being fat-soluble, vitamin E is also needed in large quantities by the brain, the trillions of cells of which are particularly rich in fat. Brain function is highly dependent on the efficient functioning of cell membranes, largely formed of fatty tissue, to allow transmission of messages between cells. Free radical damage to cell membranes, worsening rapidly with age, is therefore regarded as one of the principal causes of impaired cognitive function and may even be implicated as a contributory factor in Alzheimer’s disease. As an anti-oxidant, vitamin E is an important protector against free radical damage and it’s not surprising, therefore, that numerous studies have reported superior cognitive function and memory as consequences of vitamin E supplementation.

As cancer is well known as predominantly a disease of degeneration, it is not surprising that powerful anti-oxidants such as vitamin E should offer a degree of protection against it. And indeed, numerous studies have clearly linked enhanced levels of vitamin E in the body with a reduced incidence of common cancers, particularly that of the prostate. As a powerful anti-oxidant vitamin E may also protect against the damage to healthy cells that is an inevitable accompaniment of necessarily aggressive chemo and radio cancer therapies.

And as if all of this wasn’t enough, vitamin E has also demonstrated possible benefits in the treatment of diabetes, in combatting the pain of rheumatoid and osteoarthritis and in maintaining good vision, particularly in old age. Vitamin E is also regarded as a general immune system booster.

But for all these identified benefits, concerns persist in some quarters about the potential dangers of vitamin E, and are generally focussed on the possible toxicity of very high intakes. And it’s true that being fat-soluble, vitamin E can be stored in the body, giving rise to a potential for toxicity if ingested in excessive quantities over time. But there are good grounds for thinking that these concerns are probably misplaced.

Rich dietary sources of vitamin E are foods such as leafy green vegetables, certain types of nuts, vegetable oils and whole grains. The typical modern, highly processed, Western diet, high in fat and refined carbohydrate, and produced from intensively farmed, poor quality soils, is unlikely to provide even an adequate, let alone an excessive supply of the vitamin.

Moreover, both the Institute of Medicine and US Dietary Guidelines have identified a regular daily intake of 1,500 IU as the maximum at which no risk should arise to the health of healthy individuals. To put this in context: most commercially available supplements will provide only between 200 and 400 IU.

So with the ever increasing danger of free radical damage as the body ages, and the difficulty of obtaining adequate supplies from diet alone, it appears that any problems arising from vitamin E are far more likely to be those of deficiency rather than excess.

Steve Smith

More about liquid vitamins and minerals

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